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C<< c- -%2A`Arial&Draw Object <<=8C HKKKK# WPCoQ513+ %d1d3d57**% WPCoQ513+ %d1d3d57**o&"D&raw Object Text <C HKKKKdd / "  -  lXGFXlXXXlXGF XGFXXXCorporate   @  @ Xresour  ces X @ XXX XGF  "  lXGFXlXXXlXGF @ XXXX XGFXXXLocal   @  @ resources @ XXX XGF+ WPCd513+ %d.1d+-+  \%%- WPCd513+ %d.1d+-+  %\%1  d  "  -  lXGFXlXXXlXGF @  @   XXXXXXXX  p   @ p݌̌  XXXXXXXX @   @  @   XXXXXXXX     @  XGFXXXContent݌  Ќ   XGFXX XGFXXX XGF @   @  @   XXXXXXXX     XGFXXXspecializationX݌  Ќ   XGFXX XGFXXX XGF @   @  @   XXXXXXXX  =   XGFXXX(includeshiringof  expertise)=݌̌   XGFXX XGFXXX XGF @   @ XXXX 0 "  lXGFXlXXXlXGF @ XXXX @  @    @  @  XGFXXXCommunity   @ orientationXXX XGF 5 "  lXGFXlXXXlXGF @   XXXX @  @  XGFXXXOrganizational   @ commitmenttoagoal(unmeasured)XXX XGF3 WPCK-513+ %d.1d+-+  %%}%5 WPC+ d513+ %d.1d+-+  \%%7 WPCKu-513+ %d.1d+-+  %%m%9 WPCu513+ %d.1d+-+  m%% # "  -  lXGFXlXXXlXGF @   XXXX @  @  XGFXXXOrganizational   @ sizeXXX XGF  "  -  lXGFXlXXXlXGF @   XXXX @  @  XGFXXXCommunity   @ sizeXXX XGF= WPCKu-513+ %d.1d+-+  %%m%($     * n!  _lXGFXlXXXlXGF?+ 4 <DL!X?/2XX/2/2 4   1   dTable_A dTable_BTable_CTable_DTable_ETable_FTable_GTable_HTable_I Table_J Table_K Table_L Table_M Table_NTable_OTable_PTable_QTable_R((2W$ n!  lXGFXlXXXlXGF 4   0  &$ d d% %dK Kd3|JHP LaserJet 6L PCL,,,,,,0-kAZ"Arial Regularl($w*EEP0* ƃU v N )  wXGFXlxXXXlXGF?+ 4 <DL!X?yI95x h  p @ H****Epp !!-kAZ"Arial Regular\  `&Times New Roman d "  wXGFXlxXXXlXGF?+ 4 <DL!X? @ ?+ 4 <DL!X? @ ! !X!xXXXXzXXXX     @ xXXXX  -  {XGFXXX2-    zXXX XGFxXXXX\  `Times%2A`Arial  "  _-  lXGFXl @   XXXlXGF @  @ XGFXXXCommunity   @ sizeXXXXGF\  `Times%2A`Arial n!  _X    ?+ 4 <DL!X?llAlu   ADeterminantsofNewsroomUseofStaffExpertise: p   TheCaseofInternationalNews    /2 XX/2XXXX  &        XX       Wilson_Lowrey_ Ԍ O  Ќ   XGFX XXX XGF     XXXX'z/2XX /2DepartmentofCommunication I  MississippiStateUniversity  200E_McComas_ԀHallP.O.BoxPFMississippiState,MS397626623257841  LeeB.Becker  Y   _Aswin_Ԁ_Punathambekar_     /2 /2JamesM.CoxJr.CenterforInternationalMassCommunicationTrainingandResearch 7 HenryW.GradyCollegeofJournalism&MassCommunication  TheUniversityofGeorgiaAthens,GA306027065425023PaperpresentedattheMidwestAssociationforPublicOpinionResearchAnnualConference,Chicago,November2000  /2   )i$(       /2 8dd8DeterminantsofNewsroomUseofStaffExpertise:  TheCaseofInternationalNews  ,      /2 XX/2XXXX     /2XX/2/2   J    /2 4 Literatureonnewsconstructionacknowledgesthatnewspaperscreatespecializedcontent,butthereislittlespeculationastowhyspecialtiesariseandwhyexpertiseinaparticularcontentareamaybegreateratonepaperthanatanother.Thisstudyisanattempttoexplainvariabilityacrossnewspapersinthedegreeofexpertiseandspecializationinonecontentarea"thecoverageofinternationalnews.Inthisstudyexpertiseistreatedasasociologicalconstruct,shapedbystructuralcharacteristicsofnewsorganizationsandtheircommunities.   X/2XX /2 4 Scholarswhohavestudiedthecoverageofinternationalnewshavetypicallylookedtoglobalfactorstoexplainvariabilityincoverage.Muchofthisresearchassumesthatthestructureofinfluencesoninternationalnewscoveragereflectsthestructureofpoweramongnations.Modelsofmediaproductionshow,however,thatthecraftingofmediamessagesisalsosubjecttoinfluencesofamorelocalnature.Theseinfluencesexistonavarietyoflevels,fromorganizationalinfluences,toinfluencesinthelocalcommunityspowerstructure,tocorporateinfluences.Theseinfluencesarelikelytoaffectnotonlythetypeofforeignnewsthatappears,butalsothequalityanddepthofthiscoverage.Inthisstudyitisassumedthatthequalityofcoverageofinternationalnewsisaproductoftheexpertiseavailablefordecisionmakinginnewsorganizations,andthatthedegreeofexpertiseitselfisaproductofseveraldifferentlevelsofsocialinfluence. 4 Expertiseinthisstudyisconsideredanorganizationallevelratherthananindividuallevelconcept.Whilebackgroundoftheinternationalnewseditorisconsideredareflectionofexpertise,thedecisiontohiretheinternationaleditorwasmadeattheorganizationallevel.Likewise,dailydecisionmakingintheorganizationsworkflowalsoreflectsdegreeofavailableexpertise.   -!}2  X XGFX /2   & U                  /2 /2 Theliterature P"4    /2 'U-!/2 & G     XX/2XXXX    /  /2XX /2Factorsshapinglevelsofexpertise:extramediafactors  $8 1 Ԍ #6 Ќ  /2    1 Ԍ  /2    1 Ԍ  /2    1 Ԍ  /2    1 Ԍ  /2    1 Ԍ  /2    . Ԍ  /2      X/2XX /2 4 Frameworksformediaproductionplaceinfluencesonseveraldifferentlevelsofanalysis,typicallyarrangedinahierarchicalfashion,suchthatmore_macrosocial_Ԁlevelsconstraindecisionmakingatmore_microsocial_Ԁlevels(_McQuail_,2000;ShoemakerandReese,1992;_Dimmick_Ԁand_Coit_,1982).ForexampleinShoemakerandReeses(1992)model,mediamessagesareshapedatlevelsinthefollowingdescendingorder:ideological,extramedia(e.g.,communityinfluences)organizational,mediaroutinesandindividualmediaworker.In_McQuail_s (2000)model,levelsrangefromtheinternationalleveldowntothe masscommunicatorlevel'G $  -)H Whethertheresearcheremphasizesextramediainfluencesororganizationalinfluencesreveals thewaytheresearcherconceptualizesorganizations.Intheclassicperspective,organizationsareclosedsystems,relativelyimpervioustooutsideinfluences,inwhichmanagersgatheravailableinformationandmakerationaldecisions.Thesedecisionsarefollowedbystaffatlowerlevelsinahierarchy(Scott,1992;_Perrow_,1986).However,organizationsmayalsobeperceivedas opensystems(Scott,1992),orasopentoenvironmentalinfluences(Aldrich,1979;_Pfeffer_and_Salancik_,1978).Opensystemsareaccessibletoinfluencesfromtheorganizationsenvironment.Suchorganizationsarenotnecessarilydrivenbytherationalgoalsofhierarchicaldecisionmaking(althoughsuchgoalscontinuetoplayaroleindecisionmaking),butarerathercomposedofsegmentsthatareonlyweaklyconnectedwithoneanother,andwhichhaveseparateconnectionswithstructuresbeyondtheorganization. 4 Literatureontherelationshipbetweencommunitypowerstructureandnewscoveragefallswithintheopensystemsorenvironmentalperspectiveonorganizationsandisrelevanttothisstudy._Tichenor_,_Donohue_Ԁand_Olien_Ԁ(1980)seenewspapersas creationsofthecommunitytheyserve(p.49).Theyare mechanismsforcommunitysocialcontrolthatmaintainthenorms,valuesandprocessesofacommunityand8theirfunctionsnecessarilyfitintoapatternthatvariespredictablyaccordingtosizeandtypeofcommunity.Accordingtothisviewpoint,theexpertiseresidingwithinamediaorganizationislargelyafunctionofthedegreetowhichthepowersinthenewspaperscommunityrequirethisexpertisefortheirowninformationflowpurposes.Larger,more structurallypluralisticcommunitieshaveagreaternumberofdecisionmakingsegments,andagreaterneedbythesesegmentsforknowledgeofothersegments.Communitysizealsocorrelateshighlywithdegreeofoccupationaldifferentiationandlevelofeducation,whichinturnheightensreadersexpectationsoflevelofexpertiseinmediacontent.Communitysizealsoenablescriticalsizeforsocialorganizationandinfluence.Anethnicgroup,forexample,canbeintheminorityinalargecommunity,yetstillhavethenecessarynumberstoorganizeandmakeitspresencefelt(_Tichenor_,_Donohue_Ԁand_Olien_,1980). X/2  4  /2 4 Griswold(1999)adoptsthecommunitypowerstructureperspectiveinastudyofthedevelopmentofnewspaperreporterspecializationandexpertise.Hespeculatesthatreporterspecializationmaydevelopinresponsetopressuresfromspecializedexpertsinanewspaperscommunity.Suchspecializationmakesworkeasiertoaccomplishfornewsroommanagersinseveralways.Byspecializingreporters,editorsshifttheburdenofdealingwithdailydemandsfromspecialistsourcestoreporters.Specializationmayalsoevolvebecausesourcesinsistondealingwithparticularreportersinwhomtheyhaveinvestedtrainingandtime.Such trainingmayconsistofknowledgeaboutthespecializedfieldsjargonandissues.Editorswhohavereporterstrainedintheseareasaremorelikelytoavoidcriticalfeedbackonthepartofpowerfulspecializedinterests. 4 Scholarshaveanalyzedvariousaspectsofnewsworkwithinthecommunitypowerstructureperspective.Forexample,communityvariableshavebeenusedaspredictorsof .*J newspapercoverageslant.InonestudyapositiveassociationbetweenpercentofcitybudgetdevotedtohealthcareanddegreetowhichnewspapercoverageofDr._Kevorkian_Ԁwasnegativewasfound(Pollockand_Coughlin_,1997).Inasimilarstudy,degreeofeducationandpoliticalawarenessinnewspaperscommunitieswerefoundtobepositivelyassociatedwithcoveragecondemningChinasbidforthe2000OlympicGames.PercentageofAsianandforeignbornpopulationswasalsofoundtobepositivelyassociatedwiththedegreetowhichcondemnedthebid(Pollocketal.,1998).   4 Degreetowhichnewspapercommunitiesarestructurallypluralisticalsohasbeenfoundtobeassociatedwithvariabilityincoverage.Acommunityratesasmorepluralisticifitcomprisesahighernumberofpotentiallyinfluentialinterestgroups.Inonestudy,degreeofstructuralpluralismwasfoundtobepositivelyassociatedwiththedegreetowhichnewspapercontentwascriticalofcommunitysources,thussupportingthepropositionof_Tichenor_Ԁetal.(1980)thatconflictismorenormalizedinsuchcommunitiesandthatthemediainthesecommunitiesaremorelikelytoexpressindividualandcontroversialthoughtoncommunityissues(_Demers_,1998).Anotherstudyfoundthatwhilestructuralpluralismwasnotrelatedtothelikelihoodthatnewspapereditorswouldperceiveethnicgroupleadersaspowerfulplayersinthecommunity,percentageofcommunitypopulationthatwasethnicwasasignificantpredictoroftheseperceptions(_Hindman_,etal.,1999). 4  XGFX XXX XGF  &      XXXXXXXX    .5  /2XX /2 Factorsshapinglevelsofexpertise:Organizationalfactors .55 5Ԍ I& Ќ XGFX XXX XGF     /2XX/2/2 4  /2Whiletheliteratureindicatesthatcommunityfactorsareanimportantinfluenceonmedia r( decisionmakingandthedevelopmentofexpertise,theopensystemsperspectiveoforganizationsdoesnotsuggestextraorganizationalfactorsarealldetermining.Studiesoforganizationshavedemonstratedthatfactorsontheorganizationallevel,suchasthesize,structureandresourcesofindividualmediaorganizations,alsoplayaroleinthedevelopmentofexpertise.'I 5 4 Organizationalsizehasbeenfoundtobeperhapsthemostimportantpredictorofvariabilityinorganizationaldecisionmakingandoutput(Hall,1999;_Perrow_,1986;_Blau_Ԁand_Schoenherr_,1971).Ofrelevancetothepresentstudyistheeffectoforganizationalsizeondegreeofspecializationoftasksinorganizations.Asorganizationsgrowinsize,thespanofcontrolundermanagerswidens,andmanagersfindtheymustshedresponsibilitiestosubordinatesinordertofunctioneffectivelyandmaintaincontrol.Also,organizationalgrowthresultsinthegrowthoftaskandtechnologicalcomplexity,whichfacilitatesthedevelopmentofnewareasofspecialization,thusnecessitatingthedevelopmentofexpertisearoundthesetasks(Hall,1999;_Perrow_,1986).Masscommunicationscholarshaveappliedtheseprinciplestothestudyofnewspaperwork.Solomon(1995)arguedthattheappearanceofmanagingeditorsinnewsroomsinthe1850ssignaledthatthetasksofeditorswerebeingdividedasnewsroomsaddedmorestaffers._Russial_Ԁ(1998) maintainedthatasnewspapersbecamebigger,theyorganizedlaborbysubdividingjobsand -(H developingspecialexpertiseinmorenarrowlydefinedareas.Beckeretal.(2000)notedthatorganizationalsizeappearedtobeanimportantdeterminantofreportersbeatspecialization.    4 Itisalsothecasethatlargerorganizationstendtohavemoreresourcesforoperation,thusenablinggreaterdispersionofresourcestoindividualareasofspecializationwithinorganizations(Hall,1999).Finally,increasedorganizationalsizeleadstogreaterverticaldifferentiation,whichmeansmanagersmustresorttobureaucratic,policyorientedformsofcontrolratherthandirectformsofcontrol.Studieshavefoundthatbureaucraticcontrolislessconstraining,andthatundersuchconditions,lowerlevelmanagersaremorefreetoexerciseautonomyandexpertise(_Blau_,1968)._Demers_Ԁ(1999)speculatedthatthiswasthecaseinlarger,morehierarchicallystructuredcorporateownednewspaperorganizations. 4 Managerialdecisionmakingmayalsoimpacttaskspecializationinamoredirectway.Thehumanresourcesliteratureonorganizationssuggeststhatagency,throughmanagerialdecisionmaking,shapesorganizationalstructure,ratherthanstructureshapingagency(_Perrow_,1986).Managersmayassignanemployeetoaspecializedtask,notnecessarilybecausetheemployeepossessessuperiorexpertise,butbecausethemanagerwantstorewardtheemployeetoimprovemoraleandmotivation.Onesuchrewardisverticalpromotion,whichinvolvesapayincrease.Anothermethodistolaterallytransfer,orrotate,employeesfromonepositiontoanotherinordertocombatanemployeesboredomorfatigue(Campionetal.,1994;Miller,_Dhaliwal_Ԁand_Magas_,1973).Becker,_Lowrey_,_Claussen_ԀandAnderson(2000),inacomparativestudyofbeatassignmentsamongthreenewspaperorganizations,foundlittlesupportforthepropositionthatspecializedassignmentsweremadeforthepurposeofrewardingemployees.Infacttheauthorsspeculatedthatemployeesgainedrewardsbymovingfromsmallertolargerpapers,supportingresearchconductedon craftlabormarketsinwhichworkersadvancebymovingamongsimilarcompanies(Baron,DavisBlakeand_Bielby_,1986).Beckeretal.positedthatthismaybeanotherreasontobelievedegreeofexpertisecorrelateswithorganizationalsize.Authorsfoundsomeevidence,however,thatbeatassignmentsweremadeinordertoaccommodateworkerslifestyleneedsratherthanbecauseofamatchbetweenemployeeexpertiseandtheknowledgeareaofabeat. XGFX XXX XGF       7XX77   I  /27 4  /2Literatureonnewsconstructionhasemphasizedtheimportanceofroutinestotheability a#6 ofworkerstoaccomplishworkonadailybasis.Inknowledgeindustries!suchasthenewsindustry!workersmaydevelopcomplexroutinesforaccomplishingorganizationallymandatedworkthatsubstituteforexternallyacquired expertknowledge.Theseorganizationallyderivedconventionsforknowledgehavebeenfoundinvariousmediaindustries,includingnews(_Tuchman_,1978;Fishman,1980),bookpublishing(Powell,1982),themusicindustry(RyanandPeterson,1982)andeventhefinearts(Becker,1980).Thedegreetowhichworkknowledgeisroutinizedinthesestudiesispartlyafunctionofthedegreetowhichanorganizationdevotesresources(time,staff,etc.)toworkprocesses.Individualworkers,facedwithacombinationoftimeconstraintsanduncertaintywillsearchfortemplatesfordecisionmaking,relyingonthemintimesofcrisis(_Ettema_,Whitneyand_Wackman_,1987).Muchorganizationaldecisionmakingis .*J basedonthequestforthereductionofuncertaintyfortheorganizationandforindividualworkers(_Pfeffer_,1981). IRJ݌̌ XGFX XXX XGF     /2XX/2/2 4  /2Theliteratureonhiringisalsorelevanthere,andbothorganizationalandcommunitysize F impactorganizationshiringmethods.Theliteratureindicatesthatlargerorganizationshavemoreresourcesthansmallerorganizationstodevoteto formalhiringmethods,whichincludemassadvertising,campusvisitationandtheuseofplacementagencies.Suchsearchesaremorelikelytouseconcrete,rationalcriteriainassessingjobcandidates,includingmeasurableachievementinschoolandinpastjobs.Also,thelargertheorganization,themorelikelyitsneedswillrundeeperthanthetalentpoolofthelocalcommunity,thusnecessitatingmorelargescale,formalsearches(_Marsden_,1996). XOnceawidetalentpoolhasbeenattainedthroughformalhiringmethods,informalmethodsandgeneralassessmentof fitwithanorganizationscultureorwithidiosyncratic hotbuttonissuestendtotakeoverinthefinalstatesofdecisionmaking(_Coverdill_ԀandFinlay,1998;_Kanter_,1993).Consistentwiththeworkroutinesliteraturecitedearlier,acandidatesfamiliaritywithtasksandroutinespeculiartothoserequiredbythehiringorganizationisoftenjudgedtobemoreimportantthanthecandidatesgeneralexpertiseorcommandofanareaofabstractknowledge(Bills,1998;_Kanter_,1993).Studiesonthemasscommunicationlabormarketrevealsimilarresults,showingthatinternshipswithmediaorganizationsaremoreimportanttojobfindingsuccessthansuccessintheclassroom(Becker,_Lauf_Ԁand_Lowrey_,1999;Beckeretal.,1993).Researchonwhitecollarhiringhasfoundthat informalmethodsofhiringcandominatetheentireprocess,whichincludewordofmouthamongthosewith weakties,ofthesortforgedatprofessionalconferencesorthatexistamongnetworksofacquaintancesofasimilarclassorculture(_Coverdill_ԀandFinlay,1998;_Granovetter_,1995;_Kanter_,1993).Whetherhiringisperceivedasaninformalorformalprocesshasmuchtodowithwhetheroneseesorganizationaldecisionmakingasrational,utilitarian,andcomprisingepisodic,unrelatedevents,orasbasedonsocialnetworksandtosomedegree,affect(_Granovetter_,1995).  >"4  X XGFX XXX XGF&       XXXXXXXX    i[  /2XX /2 Thestudyofinternationalnewscoverage i[[ [Ԍ  Ќ XGFX XXX XGF     X/2XX /2Previousresearchofthisstudysexemplarinternationalnewscoveragehastendedto ) lookatinfluencesonwhat_McQuail_Ԁ(2000)callstheinternationallevel,and_Dimmick_Ԁand_Coit_Ԁ(1982)callthe supranationallevel.Mostofthesestudiesfocusonvariabilityinamountofcoverageratherthanvariabilityinstaffexpertiseusedincoverage.Ascontentisareflectionofexpertise,thesestudiesprovideinsightintopossible_explanators_Ԁforthepresentstudy.Researchoninternationalnewscoveragehaslookedprimarilyatquestionsofrepresentationandequitablecoverage!whatnewsfromwhatnationsgetscoveredmostandwhy.Manyofthesestudiesadoptthestructuraltheoryofforeignnewslaidoutby_Galtung_Ԁand_Ruge_Ԁ(1965)asaconceptualstartingpoint.Thistheorypositsthatsocial,politicalandeconomiccharacteristicsofthenationsbeingcoveredarethemajordeterminantsofamountofcoveragegiventothesenations!thatinternationalnewsjudgmentisnotsimplyareflectionofaninherentnewsworthinessintheeventsbeingcovered.' G[Studiessincehavetestedthistheorywithmixedresults,andtheyhavefurtherspecifiedpredictors.Ingeneral,tradebetweennationsbeingcoveredandnationofnewsorigin,GNPofnationbeingcovered,distancebetweennations,andpopulationsizeofcountrybeingcoveredhaveprovedimportant(e.g.,_Dupree_,1971;_Rosengren_,1977;_Kareil_Ԁand_Rosenvall_,1984).Wu(2000)foundtradebetweenguest(nationbeingcovered)andhostcountry(nationofnewsorigin)tobethestrongestpredictorofamountofcoverage,followedbynumberofinternationalnewsagenciesstationedinhostcountriesandthephysicaldistancebetweenhostandguestcountries.Thestudyshowsthatfactorsstrengtheningtheconnectionbetweenhostandguestcountries!economicconnections,technicalconnectionandphysicalconnection!aremoreimportantthancharacteristicsoftheguestcountriesthemselves.Geographicalandculturaldistancehasbeenfoundtobeasignificantpredictorinmanyofthesestudies(e.g.,_Rosengren_,1977;Changetal,1987;_Nnaemaeka_Ԁand_Richstad_,1980)Theimportanceofgeographicaldistanceandavailabilityofnewsagenciessuggestsavailabilityoforganizationalresourcesmaybeasignificantdeterminant.  Onlyafewresearchershavelookedatdifferenceininternationalnewscoverageacrossnewsorganizationsinthesamecountry.Johnson(1997),inananalysisofcoverageofMexicobyU.S.papers,foundthatgeographicproximitybetweenthepaperandMexicomatteredlittle,butthat culturalproximity,asmeasuredbypercentageofanewspapercommunityspopulationofMexicanheritagewasanimportantpredictorofamountofcoveragedevotedtoMexicanissues.Sizeofthenewspaperorganization,however,ratherthanculturalproximity,wasastrongerpredictorofstorylength,orwhetherthestoryderivedfromstaffwritersorfromthewire.Lacy,ChangandLau(1989)foundnorelationshipbetweenthepercentageofcitypopulationthatwasforeignbornandwhetheranewspaperislocatedinacoastalstateandpercentageofnewsspacegiventoforeignnewscoverage.Organizationalsizehasbeenlookedatinotherstudiesofinternationalnewscoverage,mostoftenincomparisonwithimpactofcorporateownership._Akhavan_ԄMajidand_Boudreau_Ԁ(1995)foundthatorganizationalsizewasasignificantpredictorofwhethereditorssawtheirrolesas global .*J interpretersforreaders,whilesizeoftheowningcorporatechainmatteredless._Hollifield_Ԁ(1999),however,foundthatcirculationsize!ameasureoforganizationalsize!wasnotapredictorofamountofcoveragegiventoCanadianissuesbypapersintheUnitedStates.WhetherapaperwasownedbyaCanadianbasedcorporationalsodidnotpredictamountofcoverageofCanadianbasednews,butitdidimpacttheextenttowhichasinglemajorCanadianissue!theQuebecindependencevote!wascovered,aswellasthelikelihoodthepaperwouldeditorializeaboutthistopic. X XGFX XXX XGF       X/2XX/2/2   p   /2Researchon borrowedinternationalnews,whichisnewsdisseminatedbyonenews   mediumandpickedupandcitedinanotherwithoutverification,isrelevanttothesearchforpredictorsofinternationalnewsexpertise.Ahighuseofborrowednewsbyanewsorganizationwouldbeanindicatorofalackofexpertiseininternationalnewscoverage._Riffe_Ԁ(1984)and_Riffe_,Aust,Gibson,_Viall_ԀandYi(1993)foundevidenceofshrinkinginternationalnewsholeintwomajorU.S.dailies,butcontrarytoexpectations,foundnoevidencetyingstaffingresourcestoincreasedpublishingofborrowednews.Notsurprisingly,_Riffe_Ԁ(1984)foundacorrelationbetweenuseofwiredservicenewsandpublicationofborrowednewsfromthemajorgeopoliticalregions. pp݌̌ X XGFX XXX XGF        X/2XX/2/2   t   /2 tXu݌ 0  Ќ X XGFX XXX XGF   _  &    /2XX/2/2    Ov   /2ConceptsandhypothesesOvv vԌ S" Ќ  XGFX XXX XGF     X/2XX /2Thisstudyadoptsahierarchicalmodelofmediamessageproduction,similartomodels /$ suggestedby_McQuail_Ԁ(2000),ShoemakerandReese(1992)and_Dimmick_Ԁand_Coit_Ԁ(1982).Thisstudyassumesorganizationsareopensystems,subjecttoenvironmentalinfluences,butstillconstrainedbyfactorsintrinsictotheorganization.'CvWhilehierarchicalmodelsestablishlevelsofanalysis,amechanismisneededtolinktheselevelsandtotherebyexplainwhycommunityfactorsmayormaynotleadtothehiringofexpertiseininternationalnewscoverage.Itissuggestedherethattheconceptoforganizationalgoalsservesassuchanexplanation.Accordingtoscholarsofthesociologyoforganizations,organizationscanbesaidtohaveaphilosophicalcommitment,ororientation,tocertaingoals.Hall(1991)discussesthewayinwhichenvironmentalinfluencesshapegoals:   $8  X XGFX XXX XGF      X?+4 4 <DL!X?/2XX/2/2  {|   /2Goalsinvolveintentsandoutcomesandserveasconstraintsondecisionmaking... %!: Thecollectivelydetermined,commonlybasedgoalseldomremainsconstantovertime.Newconsiderationsimposedfromwithoutorwithindeflecttheorganizationsfromitsoriginalgoal,notonlychangingtheactivityoftheorganizations,butalsobecomingpartofthegoalstructure...Thegoalofanyorganizationisanabstractiondistilledfromthedesiresofmembersandpressuresfromtheenvironmentandinternalsystem.{|-}݌̌ X X4X XGFX XXX XGF     ?+ 4 <DL!X? X/2XX/2/2 ,'F  /2Innewsrooms,suchagoalmayrepresentacommitmenttoaparticularareaofnews -(H coverage.Thisgoalexistsasanintermediatevariablebetweencommunityfactorsand_hiring .*J decisions.Communitypressurescometobearonthisgoal,shapingdecisionsmadeaboutcommitmentofresources.  However,itisverydifficulttomeasuregoalsdirectly.Officialgoalsare vagueandabstract(_Perrow_,1961).Forexample,askingatopeditoraboutcommitmenttointernationalnewscoverageisnotlikelytoresultinavalidassessmentofthisconcept.However,theconsequencesofthis <  commitmenttothegoal!e.g.,hiringexpertise!maybemeasured.Theseconsequencesstemdirectlyfromwhat_Perrow_Ԁcalls operativegoals.Operativegoals designatetheendssoughtthroughtheactualoperatingpoliciesoftheorganization;theytelluswhattheorganizationactuallyistryingtodo,regardlessofwhattheofficialgoalssayaretheaims(_Perrow_,1961).Organizationalcommitmenttoagoalis,then,anunmeasuredintent.Itisasortofbackgroundvariablethatexplainstherelationshipbetweenenvironmentalinfluencesandthehiringofexpertise.Itsconsequences!whattheorganizationactuallydoes!aredirectlymeasured. 1    Whilethehiringofpersonnelwithexpertiseisoneofanumberofmeasurableconsequencesofthedegreetowhichanewsorganizationiscommittedtocontentspecialization,itisnottheonlyone.Thefocusofthispaperremainsonthehiringofexpertise,butotheraspectsofcontentspecializationwillbeexploredaswell.Theseincludeotherwaysinwhichresourcesaredevotedtointernationalnewscoverage,suchas:theexistenceofforeigncorrespondents,numberoftripsabroadtakenbylocalstaff,numberofwireservicespurchasedandsizeofnewsholedevotedtointernationalnewscoverage. XGFX XXX XGF     7XX77   _  /27 /2Organizationalcommitmentisitselfimpactedbytheorientationofthenewspaper's I& community.Astheliteratureoncommunitystructureindicates,editorialdecisionmakingaboutissuesisinfluencedbythewayacommunitysinfluentialgroupsarestructuredinregardtothoseissues.Thereforethedegreeofinternationalorientationinacommunityislikelytoaffectthedegreetowhichnewspapermanagerscommitavailableresourcestothecoverageofinternationalnews.Measuresofinternationalorientationincludeeconomicinterestssuchasinternationallyorientedbusinesses,amountoftouristtravelfromothercountries,percentofcommunitypopulationthatisethnicandtheprevalenceofethnicorganizations.Acommunitymayalsohaveamoresuitableinfrastructureforforeigntravel,asexemplifiedby,forexample,theexistenceofaninternationalairport.Conceptuallythen,thedegreetowhichacommunityisinternationallyorientedisthedegreetowhichthecommunity'spowerstructureisconnectedwithsocialandeconomicstructuresthatoriginatebeyondthefiftystates. _ĉ݌̌ XGFX XXX XGF     /2XX /2Whereinternationallyorientedgroupsaremoreabundantandprominent,theyarelikelyto '=#> wieldmoreinfluence.Influential,wellfundedgroupsaremorelikelytoplayaroleinbuildingexpertiseintheirinterestareaswithinnewsorganizations.AsGriswold(1998)suggested,thisispartlybecauseeditorswhosereportersaretrainedintheknowledgeareasoftheseinterestgroupsarelesslikelytohavetodealwithdailycriticismfromtheseinfluentialgroupsaboutcoverage.Inaddition,withtheincreaseofmarketingorientedapproachesinnewsrooms,editorsincreasinglyhaveaneyeonthedemographicmakeupoftheircommunities.Ahighpercentageofethnic .*J populationsignalsaneedtorespondtoperceivedreaderneedsthroughhigherlevelsofinternationalexpertise.Literatureoninternationalnewsflowalsoindicatesthatgreaterculturalproximitybetweeneditorsandthenationbeingcoveredpredictsmorethoroughinternationalnewscoverage.Acommunitysinternationalorientationisanindicantofculturalproximity. XItisproposedthen,thattheextenttowhichacommunitysstructureisinternationallyorientedimpactsthedegreetowhichanorganizationiscommittedtothegoalofcoveringinternationalnews.Thedegreeofinternationalexpertiseinthestaffhiredisaconsequenceofthiscommitment. XThreefactorsaffectthedegreetowhichcommunityorientationimpactsorganizationalcommitment.Twoofthesefactorshavetodowiththeavailabilityofresources.Onefactoristheavailabilityofresourcesonalocallevel.Atanewspaperorganizationthathasexperiencedrecentprofitability,resourcesshouldbemoreplentiful,anditismorelikelythatcommunityorientationwillinfluencecommitmentofresources.Thesecondcontributoryfactoristheavailabilityofresourcesonamoreremotelevelthecorporatelevel.Anewspaperthatisoneofmanynewspapersownedbyasinglecorporationismorelikelytoreceiveresourcesforthecoverageofinternationalnewsbecausethesecorporationstypicallypoolresourcesofthemanypapers.Incontrast,apaperownedbyasmallcorporationoranindependentlyownedpaperislessabletobenefitfromaneconomyofscale.Thethirdcontributoryfactoriscommunitysize"theimpactofcommunityorientationshouldvaryaccordingtohowlargethecommunityis.Thelargerthecommunity,themorelikelythatinterestgroupssuchasethnicpopulationswillbeabletoreachthecriticalmassnecessarytomaketheirpresencefeltbynewspaperorganizations. X/2  4  /2Finally,organizationalsizeshouldbeanotherpredictorofthehiringofexpertise.Growthin * sizenecessitatesthatmanagerssubdividetaskssothattheymaymaintaincontroloverworkprocesses.Thissubdivisionleadstoincreasedspecialization,andastasksbecomenarrowerinscope,itbecomesmorepracticalforexpertisetoformaroundthesespecializations.Largeorganizationsarealsomorelikelytouseformalhiringmethods,whichmeansmeasuresofabstractknowledgeofinternationalnewswillbemorelikelytobeafactorinthedecisionmaking(e.g.,schoolrecords,evidenceofcontinuingeducation).Hiringbasedoninformalfamiliarityorfitshouldbelessprevalentinlargerorganizations.Evenifcontactsaremadeinformally,throughnetworksof weakties,largerorganizationsshouldhavemoreresourcestodevotetofacilitatingprofessionaltiesamongthosecoveringandeditinginternationalnews.Wellconnectedorganizationsaremorelikelytoreceiveinformationaboutjobcandidateswithexpertise.TherelationshipofthesefactorsissummedupModel1.Asmentionedpreviously,theconceptofexpertiseinthisstudyisconsideredanorganizationallevelratherthananindividuallevelconcept.Degreeofexpertiseisconceptualizedherenotasaqualityofanindividualnewsworker,butasaconsequenceofanorganizationalcommitmenttopursuethesequalitieswhenhiring.Itisalsopresumedthatanorganizationmeasuringhighonexpertisewillhaveagreaterabilitytoproducecontentthatreflectsthisexpertise./2  .*J  X   XXX/2XXXX& U     X /2XX/2/2    Π   /2Model1:PredictingthehiringofexpertiseΠQ 9Ԍ ) Ќ X  XGFX XXX XGF     -  /2XX/2/2!#wgc ~^`p@%0 dd d`Ec``y~!%wgc ~x u` p@%0 dd d`ETz`` /~-  'U-  &('hXT~  p @  dd@Eh Ff&)'hXT~ p @  dd@E  Ff X W            !+td` ~x  p@"0h7 dh8ET   F!-td` ~ p@"07h dh8Et ) F-    "  X-  &/....'p`\~ p @d dd@E p}6&0....'p`\~ p @d dd@E6F&1....'p`\~  p @d dd@Ep&F  X $t    !3td` ~pRp@"0X dX RELRR6 -   M    -  !5td` ~,(p@"07 d8(Et (() v !7td` ~Rp@"0H dH REt RR) 8& -   v          X-  !9td` ~pp@"0H dHEL&O &:....'p`\~| 8 p @d dd@EX 8  &;....'p`\~8 p @d dd@E8_&|....'p`\~08 p @d dd@EI8u  !=td` ~Rp@"0H dH RE RR &-   4 XX/2XXXX     /2XX/2/2      ݌̌ XX/2XXXX        /2XX/2/2   $   $݌̌ XX/2XXXX        /2XX/2/2   R   R݌̌ XX/2XXXX        /2XX/2/2      ݌̌ XX/2XXXX        /2XX/2/2      ݌̌ XX/2XXXX         /2XX /2Thefollowinghypothesesfollowfromthismodel. 9,   H1:Themoreinternationallyorientedanewspaperscommunity,thegreaterthelevelof  0 contentspecializationbythenewspaper. /2  !2      /2H2:Thegreaterthelocalresourcesavailabletoanewspaperorganization,thestrongerthe $P6 relationshipbetweeninternationalorientationofanewspapercommunityandthelevelofcontentspecializationbythenewspaper. /2  X&!:      /2H3:Thegreaterthecorporateresourcesavailabletoanewspaperorganization,thestronger (#> therelationshipbetweeninternationalorientationofanewspapercommunityandthelevelofcontentspecializationbythenewspaper. /2  +U&B     1,'D  /2H4:Thelargerthenewspaperscommunity,thestrongertherelationshipbetween  internationalorientationofanewspapercommunityandthelevelofcontentspecializationbythenewspaper. /2  X  XX/2XXXX     /2XX/2/2   ӻ   /2H5:Thelargerthenewspaperorganization,thehigherthelevelofexpertiseoftheperson ]  whohandlesinternationalnewsatthenewspaper. ӻ;݌̌  XGFX XXX XGF        /2XX/2/2      ݌̌ XX/2XXXX        /2XX/2/2      /2MethodandResults/2  &݌  . Ќ XX/2XXXX       /2XX/2/2 4  /2Dataweregatheredthroughanationaltelephonesurveyofinternationalnewseditorsat  Z  largeU.S.dailies,anddatawerealsoobtainedfromexistingdatasets.Thesurveysampleconsistedof229newspapers,representingacompletepopulationofdailycitypapers  this  /2 ? >  1      this   /2ԀintheUnited P  Stateswithaverageweekdaycirculationofover50,000,accordingtoa1999EditorandPublisherdatabase.ThetelephoneinterviewsbeganthefirstweekofFebruary2000andcontinuedthroughthethirdweekofApril,encompassing12weeks.Eachinterviewlastedapproximatelyfivetotenminutes.Fivetrainedundergraduateresearchclerksandonegraduateassistantassistedintheinterviewing,whichtookplaceinthesameresearchoffice,duringdaytimeandeveninghours.Thesurveywaspretestedoninternationaleditorsattwopapers,andsomeminorchangesinthesurveyweremadeasaresult.Becausemanypapersdidnothavestaffmembersdesignatedsolelyforthepurposeofeditinginternationalnews,interviewersgathereddatafromthestaffmembermostoftenresponsibleforeditingforeignnewsonadailybasis.Atsmallerpapersthispersonwasoftenawireeditororcopyeditor. XGFX XXX XGF     X/2XX/2/2      /2Ultimately,completedsurveyswereobtainedfrom223ofthe229newspapersfora !* returnrateof97.4%.Fournewspapersthathadanationalaudiencewereexcludedfromthesample,astheconceptofcommunityimpactwasnotrelevantforthesepapers.Itisreasonabletoassumeresultsfrom100%ofrespondentswouldnotdiffersignificantlyfromresultsfrom97.4%ofrespondents.Thesampleisthereforeconsideredtobeacensusofthepopulation./2   m݌ ]!2 Ќ XXX/2XXXX      /2XX/2/2   5  X  /2Datafromexistingdatasetsalsowereusedtomeasurevariables.A1999 Editor& "4 Publisher  databaseprovidedcirculationfigures,informationoncorporateownershipand #6 communitypopulationdataforthenewspapersinthestudy.Communityorientationwasmeasuredviaanumberof_subindices_.InformationonethnicpopulationwasgatheredfromCensusdataandinformationonethnicorganizationswastakenfromMinorityOrganizations:ANationalDirectory1998.DataonmilitarybaseswereobtainedfromArmyTimesPublishing,amilitaryinformationserviceownedbyGannett,anddataonFortune500companiesincommunitieswereobtainedfromtheFortune500Website.Dataonforeigntravelwereobtainedfromthe TravelIndustryAssociationofAmerica (1997).Dataoninternationalflightswere +&D obtainedfromtheU.S.DepartmentofTransportation(1998). /2  5݌ ,(F Ќ XX/2XXXX   X&    /2XX/2/2       Ԍ̌ XX/2XXXX     /2XX/2/2 4  /2Theindependentvariable DegreeofInternationalOrientationoftheCommunity was ) measuredinsixdifferentways.First, Presenceof EthnicOrganizations wascoded,atthestate U level,foreachofthe223newspapers.Theuseofstatedataisjustifiablebecausemanyorganizationsdonothaveonlyacommunityorganization.Manyoftheseorganizationsactuallyexistonlyatthestatelevel,thoughtheymayhaveanumberofofficesaroundthestate.Organizationsofthreetypeswereincluded:Hispanic,AfricanAmerican,andAsianAmerican.ThenumberofHispanicorganizationsrangedfrom0to237,withameanof64.8andamedianof27.ThenumberofAfricanAmericanorganizationsrangedfrom0to160,withameanof42.8andamedianof27.ThenumberofAsianAmericanorganizationsrangedfrom0to301,withameanof45.3andamedianof9.Thesemeasureswerehighly_intercorrelated_Ԁ(Pearsoncorrelationcoefficientsof.89,.85and.73),sotheitemsweresummedintoasingleindex,witharangeof0to656,ameanof152.9andamedianof76.'t 4 Threemeasuresof PopulationDiversity ofthecommunitywereused:percentofthe  populationthatwasHispanic,AfricanAmericanandAsianAmerican.Thedatausedwerebymetropolitanarea,wheresuchdataexist.Thatistosay,ifanewspaperwaslocatedinwhattheCensusBureaudefinedasaMetropolitanArea,thedataforthatmetropolitanareawereused.IfthenewspaperwasnotpartofaCensusBureauMetropolitanArea,countydatawereused.InthosecaseswheretheEditor&PublisherYearbookfor1999listedmorethanonecountyforanewspaper,thedataforthelistedcountieswerecombined. 4 ThepercentagesforHispanicpopulationrangedfrom0.4%to69.6%,withameanof7.9andamedianof3.7%.ThepercentageforAfricanAmericanrangedform0.3%to53.2%,withameanof12.2%andamedianof9.0%.ThepercentagesforAsianAmericanrangedfrom0.4%to63.0%,withameanof3.4%andamedianof1.8%.Tocreateameasureof PopulationDiversity , F. thesethreemeasuresweresummed.ThisproceduredoubleweightsAfricanAmericancommunityresidentswhowerealsoHispanic.Therangeforthisnewcommunitydiversityvariablewasfrom1.9%to74.4%,withameanof23.5%andamedianof20.0%. X NumberofInternationalCorporations wasmeasuredbyusingtheFortune500listof #6 corporations,ontheassumptionthatmajorcorporationshavesignificantinternationalactivityorcompetition.Thesedataarebynewspapercityandsurroundingareas.Therangeofnumberofinternationalcorporationswasfrom0to51,withameanof6.5andamedianof1. X /2  4  /2PresenceofMilitaryBases wasmeasuredbycountingthenumberofmilitarybases.The  (p#> dataarebynewspapercityandsurroundingareas.Therangeofnumberofbaseswasfrom0to18,withameanof1.2andamedianof0. 4 ForeignVisitorExpenditure fortravelwasmeasuredbyamountspentindollarsin1997 +&D byforeignvisitors,inthousandsofU.S.dollars.Thedataarebystate.Therangeofexpenditureswasfrom$32,400to$16,573,800,withameanof$3,780,558andamedianof$835,900.The -1)H justificationforusingthedatabystateisthatstateslargelypromoteandbenefitfromtourismasastate.Forexample,anynewspaperinFloridawouldbeexpectedtobesensitivetothefactthatFloridaisthetopstateinthecountryintermsofexpendituresbyforeigntravelers. 4 InternationalAirTravel wasmeasuredbycountingthenumberofflightstoaforeign i destinationtoandfromthecityinwhichthenewspaperwaslocated.Communitieswithmorethanoneairportflyinginternationally,suchasmetropolitanNewYork,weregivencreditforallairportsinthatcommunity.Thedataarebycommunity.Therangeofoutboundflightswas0to46,376,withameanof2,872.6andamedianof2.Therangeofinboundflightswas0to64,374,withameanof3,540.5andamedianof2.Thesetwomeasuresweresummedtocreateasingleindexwitharangeof0to98,798,ameanof6,413.1andamedianof5. 4 Theindependentvariable OrganizationalSize inhypothesisfivewasmeasuredby g  circulationfigures,and CommunitySize inhypothesisfourwasmeasuredbypopulationfigures. C  Amountof CorporateResources usedinhypothesisthreewasmeasuredbythenumberofpapers o  ownedbyeachcorporation.Itisassumedthatcorporationswithmoreextensiveholdingshavemoreflexibilitytoshiftresourcesfromonepapertoanother.So,forexample,GannettpaperswouldscorehigheronthisvariablethanScrippsHowardpapers.Amountof LocalResources inhypothesistwo 1 wasmeasuredbyreadershippenetrationfiguresforeachnewspaper,undertheassumptionthathighreadershipfiguresareanindicationoffinancialrobustnessoforganizations.Thesefigures,collectedfromAuditBureauofCirculationreports,wererecordedforeachpaperfortheyears1994and1998andaveraged./2  v&  4  /2Thedependentvariable OrganizationalCommitment totheGoalofInternationalCoverage ( isnotmeasureddirectly.Rather,thesurveyinstrumentcontainedanumberofmeasuresoftheconsequencesoforganizationalcommitment.Thesearetermed ContentSpecialization ,andtwo 8, typesofspecializationweremeasured.Onegroupofmeasuresfocusesongeneralstrategiesforgatheringinternationalnews.Theseinclude:thenumberofwireservicesused,thespacedevotedtointernationalnews,thenumberofforeigncorrespondents,theamountofforeigntravelbyreportersandphotographers,thefrequencywithwhichthenewspaperuseslocallygeneratednewsanalysespiecesoninternationaltopics,andthepercentofinternationalnewstakenfromthewireservices.Thesecondgroupofvariablesfocusesspecificallyonthecharacteristicsandassignmentsoftheinternationalnewseditor.Theseinclude:theamountofinfluencetheinternationaleditorhadontheselectionofwireservices,thedutiesoftheinternationaleditorbeyondinternationalnewsitself(measuredintwoways),specialpostgraduatetrainingfortheinternationaleditor,theyearsofexperiencesoftheinternationaleditorinhandlinginternationalnews,thelevelofformaleducationoftheinternationaleditor,andtheformal,universitytrainingoftheinternationaleditorininternationalaffairs. 4 Theamountofinfluenceoftheinternationaleditoronselectionofwireserviceswasmeasuredviaselfreport.Theinternationaleditorswereaskediftheyhadadditionaldutiesbeyond -+)H handlingtheinternationalnews.Theyalsowereaskedtheirjobtitle.Theformerwasonemeasureofspecialization;jobtitlewasclassifiedtocreateasecond,withthosewithonlyaninternationalassignmentscoredhigher.Theeditorwasaskedifsheorhehad_had_Ԁanyspecialtraining(otherthaninformaluniversitystudies)beforetakingovertheinternationalnewsassignment.Yearshandlinginternationalnewswasmeasuredbyselfreport,aswasyearsofformaleducation.Themajorsandminorsoftherespondentswhoattendeduniversitywereclassified.Anindividualwitheitheramajororminor(attheundergraduateorgraduatelevel)ininternationalaffairsorsomethingelsewithaninternationalfocuswasscoredthehighest,followedbythosewithforeignlanguagemajorsorminors,followedbythosewithpoliticalsciencemajorsorminors,followedbyallothers.  H1:Themoreinternationallyorientedanewspaperscommunity,thegreaterthelevelofcontent ;  specializationbythenewspaper./2  ^     4  /2Thefirsthypothesispredictedarelationshipbetweencommunityorientationandthe 1  organizationalcommitmentofthenewspaperasrepresentedbyitscontentspecialization.Table1presentszeroordercorrelationsthatspeaktothisexpectation.Ingeneral,thepresenceofethnicorganizationsinacommunityisapredictoroforganizationalcontentspecialization,whilepopulationdiversityisnot.Thenumberofinternationalcorporationsandthepresenceofmilitarybasesarealsopredictors.Foreigntravelexpendituresaresomewhatinconsistentlycorrelatedwiththecriterionvariables,whileamountofinternationalairtravelfromthecommunityisrelatedratherconsistentlytothecontentspecializationashypothesized.   4 Ingeneral,thispatternsholdsinTable2aswell,whichshowsthebivariatecorrelationsbetweenthecommunityvariablesandpersonnelpoliciesrelatedtothecoverageofinternationalnews.Ingeneral,however,betterpredictedisthespecializationoftheinternationaleditor(asrepresentedbythetwomeasuresofduties),andtheamountofspecialized,postgraduatetrainingininternationalaffairs.Ratherunrelatedtoanyofthepredictorsistheamountofformaltrainingininternationalexpertiseandtheamountoftimeactuallyspentcoveringinternationalnews.H2:Thegreaterthelocalresourcesavailabletoanewspaperorganization,thestrongerthe !k2 relationshipbetweeninternationalorientationofanewspapercommunityandthelevelofcontentspecializationbythenewspaper./2  a#6    4  /2Tables3and4lookattheimpactofthecontrolforlocalorganizationalresourcesonthe $8 relationshipbetweencommunityvariablesandthethreepersonnelmeasuresoforganizationalcontentspecializationthatweremostconsistentlyrelatedtopredictorvariablesinTable2.Newspaperpenetrationlevelsareusedtomeasurelocalorganizationalresources.Theresultsareratherinconclusive.Thenumberofmilitarybasesclearlyisabetterpredictorinthecasewherelocalorganizationalresourcesareabovethemedian(usedinthisandsubsequenttablestopartitionthesample).Thenumberofinternationalcorporationsappearstobesomewhatbetterhereaswell.Otherwise,however,itisdifficulttomakeacaseforthishypothesis.Infact,theamountofinternationaltravelisabetterpredictorwhenlocalresourcesareweakthanwhentheyarenot.  H3:Thegreaterthecorporateresourcesavailabletoanewspaperorganization,thestrongerthe .*J relationshipbetweeninternationalorientationofanewspapercommunityandthelevelofcontentspecializationbythenewspaper./2  #    4  /2DatarelevanttothishypothesisareshowninTables5and6.Sizeofthenewspapergroup F wasusedasthemeasureofcorporateresources;thesamplewasdividedatthemedian.Again,thereislittleconsistentevidencetosupportthishypothesis.  H4:Thelargerthenewspaperscommunity,thestrongertherelationshipbetweeninternational _   orientationofanewspapercommunityandthelevelofcontentspecializationbythenewspaper./2        4  /2CommunitysizeisusedasacontrolinTables7and8totestthishypothesis.Wherea   newspaperwasinametropolitanarea,thesizeofthemetropolitanareawasusedasthemeasureofcommunitysize.Whereitwasnot,countysizewasusedasthemeasure.Themedianwasusedtopartitionthesampletotestthehypothesis.Ratherconsistently,thepredictedrelationshipsbetweencommunityfactorsandorganizationalcommitmentasindicatedbypersonneldecisionsisgreaterinlargecommunitiesthaninsmallones.Thedatasupportthepredictedimpactofcommunitysizeontheinitialrelationship.  H5:Thelargerthenewspaperorganization,thehigherthelevelofexpertiseofthepersonwho  handlesinternationalnewsatthenewspaper./2       4  /2Aspredicted,organizationalsizeiscorrelatedwitheachofthethreecriterionvariables 0  showninTables3through8tomeasureorganizationalcontentspecialization.Thebivariaterelationshipbetweensizeandthefirstmeasureofdutiesbeyondinternationalnewsis.493,whileitis.619forthesecondmeasure.Therelationshipbetweensizeandspecializedtrainingininternationalaffairswas.290,asshowninTable9.   4 Withacorrelationof.578,itisclearthatcommunitysizeishighlyrelatedtoorganizationalsize.Theimportanceofcommunitysizeisunderscoredbyaregressionanalysisinwhichspecializedtrainingininternationalaffairswasthedependentvariableandthecommunitycharacteristicsshownineachofthetablesandcommunitysizewerethepredictorvariables.Ifthecommunitycharacteristicsshowninthetablesareenteredasthefirstblockintheanalysis,theadjustedRSquarefortheequationis.10.Enteringcommunitysizedoesnotchangethecoefficient.Inotherwords,theothercommunitycharacteristicsincludethevarianceaccountedforbycommunitysize.Ifcommunitysizeisintroducedfirstintheequation,theadjustedRSquareis.05.EnteringtheothervariablesintotheequationbringstheadjustedRSquareto.10.Communitysizeisnotthesolecontributortotheexplanationofcontentspecializationrepresentedbythetrainingspecialization. Conclusions 3*%B    4 Itisclearthatsize!bothorganizationalandcommunitysize!arehighlyrelatedtothe _+&D impactcommunityfactorshaveonorganizationallevelandpersonnellevelcontentspecialization.Almostallthepredictorsofpersonnelexpertisearestrongerinlargercommunitiesthaninsmallercommunities.Thisfindingcouldbeinterpretedassupportfortheideathatlocalgroups(ethnic .*J organizations,internationalcorporations,militaryinstitutions,andtouristindustryinstitutions)reachacriticalmassinlargercommunitiesandthereforemaketheirinfluencefeltmorestronglyinlargercommunities.Educationlevelsanddegreeofoccupationaldifferentiationalsotendstobehigherinlargercommunities,thussuggestingthateditorswouldhireexpertiseininternationalnewsinordertosatisfytheirreaders.However,thestrongcorrelationbetweencommunitysizeandorganizationalsizesuggestsanotherpossibility.Itmaybethattherelationshipbetweenfactorsofinternationalorientationandlevelofpersonnelexpertiseisduetothefactthatlargerorganizationstendtoresideinlargercommunities,andorganizationalsizeisastrongpredictorofdegreeofspecialization.ThisinterpretationisconsistentwithfindingsbyJohnson(1997)and._Akhavan_ԄMajidand_Boudreau_Ԁ(1995)thatorganizationalsizehadasignificantimpactoninternationalnewscoverage. 4 Theregressionresultssuggestthatsizeisnotthesoleexplainer.Thedifferentialimpactofamountofresources(Tables36)ontherelationshipbetweencommunityfactorsandpersonnelexpertisealsooffersarivalexplanation.Ingeneral,resourceavailabilitystrengthenstherelationshipbetween institutionalpredictorsandlevelofpersonnelexpertisemorethanitdoestherelationshipbetween noninstitutionalpredictorsandlevelofpersonnelexpertise.Thepresenceofinternationalcorporationsandmilitarybasesareinstitutionalpredictorsbecausetheyrepresentorganizationsthatcanuseconsiderableresourcestoinfluencedecisionmakersatnewspapers.Managersattheseorganizationsalsopossessagency.Noninstitutionalpredictorsinthisstudyincludepopulationdiversity,travelexpendituresandnumberofflights.Theseinfluencesaremeasuresofacommunitysinternationalorientation,buttheseinfluencesdonotobviouslyrepresentactiveorganizations.Itseemsthenthatnewspaperorganizationsaremorelikelytoactivatetheirresourcesinresponsetopressuresfromactivecommunityorganizations.Theyarelesslikelytorespondtosomevagueimpressionthattheircommunityisinternationallyoriented,nomatterwhatthelevelofavailableresourcespossessedbythenewspaper.Thisfindinglendssupporttothecommunitystructureperspectiveof_Tichenor_,_Donohue.and_Ԁ_Olien_Ԁ!newspaperdecisionmakingreflectstheleaningsofthepowerstructureinitscommunity.   4 Italsoseemsthatthepresenceofinternationalcorporationshasmoreeffectwhencorporatelevelresourcesarehigh,whilemilitarybaseshavemoreeffectwhenlocalresourcesareavailable.Thismayreflectthegreaterlikelihoodthatinfluencefrominternationalcorporationsisfeltatthecorporatelevelinthenewspaperorganization.Theanomalytothesefindingsisthefactthatavailabilityofresourcesdoesnotstrengthentherelationshipbetweenpresenceofethnicorganizationsandlevelofpersonnelexpertise.Thismaymeanethnicorganizationshavelittleinfluencerelativetolargecorporationsandmilitarybases.Itmayalsobeduetothefactthatdataonethnicorganizationswasgatheredatthestatelevelratherthanatthecommunitylevel,thusperhapswateringdownitsinfluencerelativetocorporationsandmilitarybases,forwhichdatawascollectedatthecommunitylevel. 4 Oneunexpectedfindingwasthedifferencebetweentheeffectofcommunityvariableson .*J thedegreetowhichnewsorganizationshiredexpertiseandtheeffectofcommunityvariablesonthedegreetowhichpersonnelgainedexpertiseafterhiring.Thisfindingsuggeststhatifmanagersinnewsorganizationsfeeltheyneedtoincreasepersonnelexpertise,theybelieveexpertisecanbegrownwithintheorganization.Thereismuchlessregardgiventoexpertisegainedineducationalinstitutionsbeforehiring.Thisfindingisconsistentwiththehiringliteraturethatsuggestshiringinstitutionsaremuchmorelikelytoemphasizefirmspecificknowledgethanmoregeneraltypesofknowledge,suchasknowledgegainedinschool. 4 Finally,asnotedabove,populationdiversitywasnotapredictorofcontentspecialization,eitheronanorganizationallevelorpersonnellevel.ThisfindingwasconsistentwithfindingsbyLacyetal.(1989)thatethniccompositionofcommunitypopulationhadlittleimpactoninternationalnewscoverage.IthowevercontradictsJohnsons(1997)findingthatpercentageofpopulationthatwasMexicandidimpactcoverageofinternationalnews.Johnsonsfindingpointstothepossibilitythattheimpactofindividualethnicgroupsmaybenoticeable,whileacombinedmeasureofdifferentgroupsmaynotbe.Becausepopulationdiversityinthisstudywascreatedasanindexofdifferenttypesofethnicpopulations,thedifferencesinimpactbycertaintypesofethnicpopulationsmaybemasked.Perhapsforexample,AsianAmericanpopulationshaveastrongerinfluencethanHispanicpopulations,orviceversa.Adifferentialanalysisoftheinfluenceofthesegroupsisworthfurtherstudy. 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A     XGFX XXX XGF     /2XX/2/2   Y   /2TravelIndustryAssociationofAmerica (1997).ImpactofInternationalVisitorSpendingonState u  Economies.Washington,D.C.:U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,InternationalTradeAdministration,TourismIndustries. /2   Y*Z݌  Ќ XX/2XXXX       /2XX /2_Tuchman_,_Gaye_.(1978).MakingtheNews:AStudyintheConstructionofReality.NewYork:The 7 FreePress.  U.S.DepartmentofTransportation(1998),BureauofTransportationStatistics,unpublisheddata,Washington,D.C. XGFX XXX XGF       7XX77   &^  /27 &^^݌̌XX/2XXXX    w      7XX77   Y_  XX7 XGFXXXTable1.CorrelationsBetweenCommunityLevelForcesandthelevelof  ContentSpecializationatNewspapers Y__݌̌ XGFXX XGFXXX XGF       &;%XX&;%%&;  XX%&;*AB ddd Xdd Xdd X!!,YY,RYY,eYY,YY,eYY,YY,YY+  0CCCC  0  ?CCCC,!CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;Presenceof  EthnicOrganizations ?CCCC,!h  "CCCC ?PopulationDiversity ?CCCC,!  "CCCC ?NumberofInternationalCorporations ?CCCC,!h "CCCC ?PresenceofMilitaryBases ?CCCC,!h "CCCC ?ForeignTravelExpenditure ?CCCC,!h "CCCC ?InternationalAirTravel XGFX% &xXXX XGF7-+ "  CCCC 7*DE ddYYRYYReYYeYYeYYeYYYYAB!!,YY,YY,9YY, YY,XYY,XYY,YY, YY,XYY,YY,XYY,YY,XYY+  0CCCC D  0 ?CCCC,!L CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;N ?CCCC,!L "CCCC ?r ?CCCC,!L "CCCC ?N ?CCCC,!L "CCCC ?r ?CCCC,!L "CCCC ?N ?CCCC,!L "CCCC ?r ?CCCC,!L "CCCC ?N ?CCCC,!L "CCCC ?r ?CCCC,!L  "CCCC ?N ?CCCC,!L !"CCCC ?r ?CCCC,!L ""CCCC ?N XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!L #"CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;r XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:'L $  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Numberof H % WireServices XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,! @ 'CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;223 ?CCCC,!H ("CCCC ?.131 ?CCCC,!H )"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!H *"CCCC ?.090 ?CCCC,!H +"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!H ,"CCCC ?.069 ?CCCC,!H -"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!H ."CCCC ?.127 ?CCCC,!H /"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!H 0"CCCC ?.111 ?CCCC,!H 1"CCCC ?223 XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!H 2"CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;.082 XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:'H 3  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Space $ 4 DevotedtoInternationalNews XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!P 7CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;223 ?CCCC,!$ 8"CCCC ?.205 ?CCCC,!$ 9"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!$ :"CCCC ?.058 ?CCCC,!$ ;"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!$ <"CCCC ?.141 ?CCCC,!$ ="CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!$ >"CCCC ?.050 ?CCCC,!$ ?"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!$ @"CCCC ?.216 ?CCCC,!$ A"CCCC ?223 XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!$ B"CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;.115 XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:'$ C  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Numberof  \E Foreign_Corre_Ԅ_spondents_   XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!\ICCCC ?  &;%XX &x%%&;223 ?CCCC,!4 J"CCCC ?.265 ?CCCC,!4 K"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!4 L"CCCC ?.079 ?CCCC,!4 M"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!4 N"CCCC ?.63 ?CCCC,!4 O"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!4 P"CCCC ?.123 ?CCCC,!4 Q"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!4 R"CCCC ?.162 ?CCCC,!4 S"CCCC ?223 XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!4 T"CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;.560 XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:'4 U  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Foreign XV TravelbyReporters&Photo_graphers_ XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!ZCCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;223 ?CCCC,!X["CCCC ?.002 ?CCCC,!X\"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!X]"CCCC ?.070 ?CCCC,!X^"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!X_"CCCC ?.115 ?CCCC,!X`"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!Xa"CCCC ?.175 ?CCCC,!Xb"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!Xc"CCCC ?.054 ?CCCC,!Xd"CCCC ?223 XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!Xe"CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;.178 XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:'Xf  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Frequencyof g InternationalNewsAnalysisPiecesWritten XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!lCCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;223 ?CCCC,!m"CCCC ?.161 ?CCCC,!n"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!o"CCCC ?.038 ?CCCC,!p"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!q"CCCC ?.320 ?CCCC,!r"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!s"CCCC ?.205 ?CCCC,!t"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!u"CCCC ?.081 ?CCCC,!v"CCCC ?223 XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!w"CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;.400 XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:'x  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Percentof  y InternationalNewsfromWireServices XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,!#4}CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;223 ?CCCC,! ~"CCCC ?.229 ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?.102 ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?.406 ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?.203 ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?.116 ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?223 XGFX% &xXXX XGF ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;.535 XGFX% &xXXX XGF7-+    CCCC 7&;%XX  %    XX%&; XGFXXXTable2.CorrelationsBetweenCommunityLevelForcesandHiringExpertise  atNewspapers  XXX XGF  *CFG d dYYYY9YY9 YY XYYXXYYXYY YY XYYXYYXYYXYYXYYXDE!!C,YY,FYY,eYY,YY,eYY,YY,YY+  0CCCC & 0  ?CCCC,!.CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;Presenceof . EthnicOrganizations ?CCCC,!  "CCCC ?PopulationDiversity ?CCCC,!  "CCCC ?NumberofInternational_Corpo_Ԅrations ?CCCC,!Z "CCCC ?PresenceofMilitaryBases ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?ForeignTravelExpenditure ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?International  AirTravel XGFX% &xXXX XGF7-+ "  CCCC 7*HI ddYYFYYFeYYeYYeYYeYYYYFG!!,YY,YY,XYY, YY,XYY, YY,YY, YY,XYY,XYY,XYY,XYY,YY+  0CCCC 6  0  ?CCCC,!> CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;N ?CCCC,!> "CCCC ?R ?CCCC,!> "CCCC ?N ?CCCC,!> "CCCC ?r ?CCCC,!> "CCCC ?N ?CCCC,!> "CCCC ?r ?CCCC,!> "CCCC ?N ?CCCC,!>  "CCCC ?r ?CCCC,!> !"CCCC ?N ?CCCC,!> ""CCCC ?r ?CCCC,!> #"CCCC ?N ?CCCC,!> $"CCCC ?r XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:'> %"  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Editors : & InfluenceonWireServices ?CCCC,! )"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!: *"CCCC ?Є.065 ?CCCC,!: +"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!: ,"CCCC ?Є.053 ?CCCC,!: -"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!: ."CCCC ?Є.043 ?CCCC,!: /"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!: 0"CCCC ?.131 ?CCCC,!: 1"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!: 2"CCCC ?Є.044 ?CCCC,!: 3"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!: 4"CCCC ?.039 XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:': 5"  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Duties  6 beyondInternationalNews(1) ?CCCC,!f9"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! :"CCCC ?.255 ?CCCC,! ;"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! <"CCCC ?.122 ?CCCC,! ="CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! >"CCCC ?.318 ?CCCC,! ?"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! @"CCCC ?.243 ?CCCC,! A"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! B"CCCC ?.106 ?CCCC,! C"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! D"CCCC ?.295 XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:' E"  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Duties JF beyondInternationalNews(2) ?CCCC,!vI"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!JJ"CCCC ?.208 ?CCCC,!JK"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!JL"CCCC ?.081 ?CCCC,!JM"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!JN"CCCC ?.311 ?CCCC,!JO"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!JP"CCCC ?.234 ?CCCC,!JQ"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!JR"CCCC ?.075 ?CCCC,!JS"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!JT"CCCC ?.368 XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:'JU"  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;Special ZV TraininginInternationalAffairs ?CCCC,!&Y"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!ZZ"CCCC ?.149 ?CCCC,!Z["CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!Z\"CCCC ?Є.013 ?CCCC,!Z]"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!Z^"CCCC ?.236 ?CCCC,!Z_"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!Z`"CCCC ?.185 ?CCCC,!Za"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!Zb"CCCC ?.100 ?CCCC,!Zc"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!Zd"CCCC ?.222 XGFX% &xXXX XGF MCCCC:'Ze"  CCCC M&;%XX &x%%&;YearsEditing  f InternationalNews ?CCCC,!6i"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! j"CCCC ?.072 ?CCCC,! k"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! l"CCCC ?Є.093 ?CCCC,! m"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! n"CCCC ?Є.013 ?CCCC,! o"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! p"CCCC ?Є.067 ?CCCC,! q"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! r"CCCC ?Є.032 ?CCCC,! s"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,! t"CCCC ?.011 XGFX% &xXXX XGF RCCCC?' u"  CCCC 9R&;%XX &x%%&;Levelof jv Education ?CCCC,!>w"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!jx"CCCC ?.008 ?CCCC,!jy"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!jz"CCCC ?.079 ?CCCC,!j{"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!j|"CCCC ?.066 ?CCCC,!j}"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!j~"CCCC ?.067 ?CCCC,!j"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!j"CCCC ?.017 ?CCCC,!j"CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!j"CCCC ?.079 XGFX% &xXXX XGF RCCCC?,j"  9 CCCC R&;%XX &x%%&;Formal S  TraininginInternationalAffairs ?CCCC,!""CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?.077 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?.007 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?.079 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?.035 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?Є.036 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?223 ?CCCC,!S "CCCC ?.074 XGFX% &xXXX XGF7-+S "   CCCC 7&;%XX  $     XX%&; XGFXXXTable3.CorrelationsBetweenCommunityLevelForcesandHiringExpertise  atNewspapers,withAveragePenetrationFiguresascontrolVariable(PenetrationAverage=Low)  XXX XGF*CJK d dYYYYXYYX YY XYYX YY YY YY XYYXXYYXXYYXXYYXYYHI!!C,YY,FYY,eYY,YY,eYY,YY,YY+  0CCCC  `  0  ?CCCC,! h CCCC ?&;%XX &x%%&;Presenceof  h  EthnicOrganizations ?CCCC,!  "CCCC ?PopulationDiversity ?CCCC,! <"CCCC ?NumberofInternational_Corpo_Ԅrations ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?PresenceofMilitaryBases ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?ForeignTravelExpenditure ?CCCC,! "CCCC ?International  AirTravel XGFX% &xXXX XGF7-+ <"  CCCC 7*LM ddYYFYYFeYYeYYeYYeYYYYJK!!,YY,YY,XYY